5.1 Investments in projects supporting community resilience are characterized by uncertainties regarding the frequency and magnitude of natural, technological, and human-caused disruptions. Accounting for these low-probability, high-consequence events challenge traditional economic evaluation methods.5.2 The traditional approach to evaluating the benefit-cost of investment decisions routinely focus on measures directly tied to loss avoidance.5.3 Following this guide when performing an economic evaluation assures the user that relevant economic information, including information regarding uncertainties and indirect inputs, is considered for capital project facing possible disruptions from natural, technological, and human-caused hazards.5.4 Use this guide in the planning phases of community resilience plan development process. Consideration of risk mitigation choices early in the planning process allows both greater flexibility in addressing specific hazards and lower costs associated with their implementation.5.5 Use this guide to integrate community resilience plans with economic development, zoning, hazard mitigation, and other community planning activities that affect buildings, public works, and infrastructure systems.5.6 Use this guide to identify all relevant inputs—that is, costs and benefits (savings)—associated with construction, implementation, and use of the capital asset, over the lifetime of the asset. Relevant inputs include direct, indirect and externalities, and non-market values.5.7 Use this guide for economic evaluations based on Practices E917 (life-cycle costs), E964 (benefit-to-cost and savings-to-investment ratios), E1057 (internal rate of return and adjusted internal rate of return), E1074 (net benefits and net savings), E1121 (payback), E1699 (value engineering), and E1765 (analytical hierarchy process for multi-attribute decision analysis), and Guide E1369 (treatment of uncertainty).5.8 Use this guide in conjunction with Guide E2204 to summarize the results of economic evaluations involving natural, technological, and human-caused hazards.5.9 This guide generalizes Guide E2506 (cost-effective risk mitigation plan for new and existing constructed facilities) by evaluating investments into capital assets for a community.1.1 This guide describes a generic economic methodology for evaluating investment decisions aimed to improve the ability of communities to adapt to, withstand, and quickly recover from, disruptive events. The methodology describes a framework for developing cost-effective community resilience strategies for new and existing constructed facilities—buildings, industrial facilities, and other critical infrastructure. This guide provides owners and managers of constructed facilities, architects, engineers, constructors, other providers of professional services for constructed facilities, and researchers and analysts with an approach for planning and comparing resilience strategies.1.2 This guide frames the economic decision process by identifying and comparing the relevant present and future streams of costs and benefits to a community—the latter realized through cost savings and damage loss avoidance—associated with new capital investment into resilience to those generated by the status-quo.1.3 This guide provides a means to increase the capacity of communities to objectively and effectively compare and contrast capital investment projects through consideration of benefits and costs while maintaining an awareness of system resilience. Topics related to non-market values and uncertainty are also explored.1.4 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.1.5 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

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4.1 This guide describes approaches which can be used to determine surface sampling strategies before any actual surface sampling occurs. The strategy selection process needs to consider a number of factors, including, but not limited to, purpose for sampling, fitness of the sampling strategy for that purpose, data quality objectives and how the data will be used, ability to execute the selected strategy, and ability of the analytical laboratory (fixed-site or in-field) to analyze the samples once they are collected.4.2 For the purposes of sampling, and for the materials sampled, surface sampling strategies are matters of choice. Workplace sampling may be performed for single or multiple purposes. Conflicts may arise when a single sampling strategy is expected to satisfy multiple purposes.4.2.1 Limitations of cost, space, power requirements, equipment, personnel, and analytical methods need to be considered to arrive at an optimum strategy for each purpose.4.2.2 A strategy intended to satisfy multiple purposes will typically be a compromise among several alternatives, and will typically not be optimal for any one purpose.4.2.3 The purpose or purposes for sampling should be explicitly stated before a sampling strategy is selected. Good practice, regulatory and legal requirements, cost of the sampling program, and the usefulness of the results may be markedly different for different purposes of sampling.4.3 This guide is intended for those who are preparing to evaluate a workplace environment by collecting samples of metals or metalloids on surfaces, or who wish to obtain an understanding of what information can be obtained by such sampling.4.4 This guide cannot take the place of sound professional judgment in development and execution of any sampling strategy. In most instances, a strategy based on a standard practice or method will need to be adjusted due to conditions encountered in the field. Documentation of any professional judgments applied to development or execution of a sampling strategy is essential.4.5 This guide should not be used as a stand-alone document to evaluate any given contaminant or chemical species.4.6 The surface sampling techniques described in this guide are intended for the determination of metals and metalloids on surfaces, or for the determination of loadings of embedded metallic residues in surface coverings. These techniques may not accurately reflect the transferability or bioavailability of such residues by way of dermal contact or inhalation of resuspended respirable dust.1.1 This guide provides criteria to be used in defining strategies for sampling for metals and metalloids on surfaces for workplace health and safety monitoring or evaluation.1.2 Guidance provided by this standard is intended for sampling of metals and metalloids on surfaces for subsequent analysis using methods such as atomic spectrometry, mass spectrometry, X-ray fluorescence, or molecular fluorescence. Guidance for evaluation of data after sample analysis is included.1.3 Sampling for volatile organometallic species (for example, trimethyl tin) is not within the scope of this guide.1.4 Sampling to determine levels of metals or metalloids on the skin is not within the scope of this guide.1.5 Sampling for airborne particulate matter is not within the scope of this guide. Guide E1370 provides information on air sampling strategies.1.6 Where surface sampling is prescribed by law or regulation, this guide is not intended to take the place of any requirements that may be specified in such law or regulation.1.7 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.1.8 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.1.9 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

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4.1 The overall aim of this guide is to support AM users with the selection of the optimum re-use strategy for their AM process and end-use application, and provide guidance on how to implement re-use strategies in their organization.4.2 This guide suggests possible control measures that AM users can use to maintain powder quality, and factors to consider when validating selected re-use strategies, including guidance on sampling techniques.4.3 This guide is intended for metal powders used in Powder Bed Fusion processes.1.1 This guide:1.1.1 Defines key powder re-use variables and factors affecting powder re-use strategies.1.1.2 Outlines implications associated with implementation of powder re-use strategies based on selection of powder re-use variables and factors.1.1.3 Provides guidance to AM users in selection of factors in powder re-use variables depending on considered material type, AM process type and end-use application.1.1.4 Provides guidance on key process variables affecting powder properties, and considerations to mitigate their effects.1.1.5 Identifies key powder properties that may be affected by powder re-use and provides AM users guidance on control measures that can be exploited to ensure quality of re-used powder.1.1.6 Provides recommendations and guidance on factors to consider when implementing powder re-use strategies.1.1.7 Provides information on how to design a powder re-use study to validate the selected re-use variables.1.1.8 Summarizes sampling techniques and provides recommendations to AM users on sampling technique selection, and suitability of sampling techniques for powder re-use strategies.1.1.9 Provides factors to consider when designing a powder sampling study to validate the selected sampling technique.1.2 Units—The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as the standard units. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.1.3 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.1.4 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

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4.1 This guide describes standard approaches used to formulate air sampling strategies before actual air sampling occurs.4.2 For most workplace air sampling purposes, and for the majority of materials sampled, air sampling strategies are matters of choice. Air sampling in the workplace may be done for single or multiple purposes, such as health impact, hazard or risk assessment, compliance assessment, or investigation of complaints. Problems can arise when a single air sampling strategy is expected to satisfy multiple diverse purposes.4.2.1 Proper consideration of limitations of cost, space, power requirements, equipment, analytical methods, training and personnel result in a best available strategy for each purpose.4.2.2 A strategy designed to satisfy multiple purposes must be a compromise among several alternatives, and will not be optimum for any one purpose; however, the strategy should be appropriate for the intended purpose(s).4.2.3 The purpose or purposes for sampling should be explicitly stated before a sampling strategy is selected in order to ensure that the sampling strategy is appropriate for the intended use. Good sampling practice, legal requirements, cost of the sampling program, and the utility of the results may be markedly different for different intended sampling purposes.4.3 This guide is intended for use by those who are preparing to evaluate air quality in a work environment of a location by air sampling, or who wish to obtain an understanding of what information can be obtained by carrying out air sampling.4.4 This guide should not be used as a stand-alone document to evaluate any given airborne contaminant(s).4.5 This guide cannot take the place of sound professional judgment in development and execution of any sampling strategy. In most instances, a strategy based on a standard practice or method will need to be adjusted due to conditions encountered in the field. Documentation of any professional judgments applied to development or execution of a sampling strategy is essential.1.1 This guide describes criteria to be used in defining air sampling strategies for workplace health and safety monitoring or evaluation. Sampling criteria such as duration, frequency, number, location, method, equipment, and timing are all considered.1.2 Where air sampling is prescribed by law or regulation, this guide is not intended to take the place of any requirements that may be specified in such law or regulation.1.3 Guidance for surface sampling strategies for metals and metalloids is provided in Guide D7659.1.4 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.1.5 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

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4.1 This guide is suitable for sampling heterogeneous wastes.4.2 The focus of this guidance is on wastes; however, the approach described in this guide may be applicable to non-waste populations as well.4.3 Sections 5 – 10 describe a guide for the sampling of heterogeneous waste according to project objectives. Appendix X1 describes an application of the guide to heterogeneous wastes. The user is strongly advised to read Annex A1 prior to reading and employing Sections 5 – 10 of this guide.4.4 Annex A1 contains an introductory discussion of heterogeneity, stratification, and the relationship of samples and populations.4.5 This guide is intended for those who manage, design, or implement sampling and analytical plans for the characterization of heterogeneous wastes.1.1 This guide is a practical, nonmathematical discussion for heterogeneous waste sampling strategies. This guide is consistent with the particulate material sampling theory as well as inferential statistics, and may serve as an introduction to the statistical treatment of sampling issues.1.2 This guide does not provide comprehensive sampling procedures, nor does it serve as a guide to any specification. It is the responsibility of the user to ensure appropriate procedures are used.1.3 Units—The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard. All observed and calculated values shall conform to the guidelines for significant digits and rounding established in Practice D6026. Reporting of test results in units other than SI shall not be regarded as nonconformance with this standard.1.4 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.1.5 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

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5.1 This guide will help users answer simple and fundamental questions about the LNAPL occurrence and behavior in the subsurface. It will help users to identify specific risk-based drivers and non-risk factors for action at a site and prioritize resources consistent with these drivers and factors.5.2 The site management decision process described in this guide includes several features that are only examples of standardized approaches to addressing the objectives of the particular activity. For example, Table 1 provides example indicators of the presence of LNAPL. Table 1 should be customized by the user with a modified list of LNAPL indicators as technically appropriate for the site or group of sites being addressed.5.3 This guide advocates use of simple analyses and available data for the LCSM in Tier 1 to make use of existing data and to interpret existing data potentially in new ways. The Tier 1 LCSM is designed to identify where additional data may be needed and where decisions can be made using existing data and bounding estimates.5.4 This guide expands the LCSM in Tier 2 and Tier 3 to a detailed, dynamic description that considers three-dimensional plume geometry, chemistry, and fluxes associated with the LNAPL that are both chemical- and location-specific.5.5 This guide fosters effective use of existing site data, while recognizing that information may be only indirectly related to the LNAPL body conditions. This guide also provides a framework for collecting additional data and defining the value of improving the LCSM for remedial decisions.5.6 By defining the key components of the LCSM, this guide helps identify the framework for understanding LNAPL occurrence and behavior at a site. This guide recommends that specific LNAPL site objectives be identified by the user and stakeholders and remediation metrics be based on the LNAPL site objectives. The LNAPL site objectives should be based on a variety of issues, including:5.6.1 Potential human health risks and risks to relevant ecological receptors and habitats;5.6.2 Specific regulatory requirements; and5.6.3 Aesthetic or other management objectives.5.7 This guide provides a framework by which users specify benefit remediation metrics that are consistent and achievable given the conditions of the LCSM.5.8 Guidance is focused on the information needed to make sound decisions rather than specific methods or evaluations that might be used in deriving that information. This guide is weighted toward field data rather than modeling, though modeling is clearly recognized as a useful tool in generating scenarios and bracketing conditions of the LNAPL body conditions. Limited examples of site specific data used to develop the LCSM are provided in Appendix X6.5.9 By defining specific, measurable attributes of remedial actions acting upon an LCSM, users can determine which actions may be feasible and which likely are not, using an evaluation of a consistent set of factors and expectations.5.10 A sound LCSM will lead to better decisions about remedial actions. The site management decision process premised on the LCSM is intended to result in more efficient and consistent decision-making about LNAPL risk evaluations and remedial actions.5.11 The complexity of multiphase LNAPL issues and the wide variety of analysis and interpretation methods that are available has lead to uncertainty in decision-making regarding sites with LNAPL and has sometimes resulted in misleading expectations about remedial outcomes.5.12 Current risk assessment methods often assume the LNAPL is an infinite source of chemicals of concern. The remediation decision-making may be better defined by considering the LNAPL as the source material for chemicals of concern by explicitly characterizing the chemical composition and physical characteristics of the LNAPL body.5.13 When LNAPL presents the main source of risk, the LNAPL should be the primary target of remedial actions and those remedial actions should be determined by following the decision evaluations described in this guide.5.14 LNAPL regulatory policies that define remediation metrics by small LNAPL thicknesses in wells are, on a site-specific basis, often inconsistent with risk-based screening levels (RBSLs) and with current technical knowledge regarding LNAPL mobility and recoverability. LNAPL remediation metrics should be connected to the current or potential future exposures and risks, as well as to other non-risk drivers present for a particular site.5.15 The user of this guide is encouraged to identify the appropriate process for public involvement and stakeholder participation in the development of the LCSM and the site management decision process.5.16 By providing a flexible framework, this guidance will continue to be applicable in principle while the many unknowns and uncertainties in LNAPL movement and the associated risks in all plume phases (for example, sorbed, dissolved, vapor) are studied through future research efforts. Like the LCSM itself, this is a “living” document that must embrace advances in knowledge and in technology.1.1 This guide applies to sites with LNAPL present as residual, free, or mobile phases, and anywhere that LNAPL is a source for impacts in soil, ground water, and soil vapor. Use of this guide may show LNAPL to be present where it was previously unrecognized. Information about LNAPL phases and methods for evaluating its potential presence are included in 4.3, guide terminology is in Section 3, and technical glossaries are in Appendix X7 and Appendix X8. Fig. 1 is a flowchart that summarizes the procedures of this guide.1.2 This guide is intended to supplement the conceptual site model developed in the RBCA process (Guides E1739 and E2081) and in the conceptual site model standard (Guide E1689) by considering LNAPL conditions in sufficient detail to evaluate risks and remedial action options.1.3 Federal, state, and local regulatory policies and statutes should be followed and form the basis of determining the remedial objectives, whether risk-based or otherwise. Fig. 1 illustrates the interaction between this guide and other related guidance and references.1.4 Petroleum and other chemical LNAPLs are the primary focus of this guide. Certain technical aspects apply to dense NAPL (DNAPL), but this guide does not address the additional complexities of DNAPLs.1.5 The composite chemical and physical properties of an LNAPL are a function of the individual chemicals that make-up an LNAPL. The properties of the LNAPL and the subsurface conditions in which it may be present vary widely from site to site. The complexity and level of detail needed in the LCSM varies depending on the exposure pathways and risks and the scope and extent of the remedial actions that are needed. The LCSM follows a tiered development of sufficient detail for risk assessment and remedial action decisions to be made. Additional data collection or technical analysis is typically needed when fundamental questions about the LNAPL cannot be answered with existing information.1.6 This guide does not develop new risk assessment protocols. It is intended to be used in conjunction with existing risk-based corrective action guidance (for example, Guides E1739 and E2081) and regulatory agency requirements (for example, USEPA 1989, 1991, 1992, 1996, 1997).1.7 This guide assists the user in developing an LCSM upon which a decision framework is applied to assist the user in selecting remedial action options.1.8 The goal of this guide is to provide sound technical underpinning to LNAPL corrective action using appropriately scaled, site-specific knowledge of the physical and chemical processes controlling LNAPL and the associated plumes in ground water and soil vapor.1.9 This guide provides flexibility and assists the user in developing general LNAPL site objectives based on the LCSM. This guide recognizes LNAPL site objectives are determined by regulatory, business, regional, social, and other site-specific factors. Within the context of the Guide E2081 RBCA process, these factors are called the technical policy decisions.1.10 Remediation metrics are defined based on the site objectives and are measurable attributes of a remedial action. Remediation metrics may include environmental benefits, such as flux control, risk reduction, or chemical longevity reduction. Remediation metrics may also include costs, such as installation costs, energy use, business impairments, waste generation, water disposal, and others. Remediation metrics are used in the decision analysis for remedial options and in tracking the performance of implemented remedial action alternatives.1.11 This guide does not provide procedures for selecting one type of remedial technology over another. Rather, it recommends that technology selection decisions be based on the LCSM, sound professional judgment, and the LNAPL site objectives. These facets are complex and interdisciplinary. Appropriate user knowledge, skills, and judgment are required.1.12 This guide is not a detailed procedure for engineering analysis and design of remedial action systems. It is intended to be used by qualified professionals to develop a remediation strategy that is based on the scientific and technical information contained in the LCSM. The remediation strategy should be consistent with the site objectives. Supporting engineering analysis and design should be conducted in accordance with relevant professional engineering standards, codes, and requirements.1.13 ASTM standards are not federal or state regulations; they are voluntary consensus standards.1.14 The following principles should be followed when using this guide:1.14.1 Data and information collected should be relevant to and of sufficient quantity and quality to develop a technically-sound LCSM.1.14.2 Remedial actions taken should be protective of human health and the environment now and in the future.1.14.3 Remedial actions should have a reasonable probability of meeting the LNAPL site objectives.1.14.4 Remedial actions implemented should not result in greater site risk than existed before taking actions.1.14.5 Applicable federal, state, and local regulations should be followed (for example, waste management requirements, ground water designations, worker protection).1.15 This guide is organized as follows:1.15.1 Section 2 lists associated and pertinent ASTM documents.1.15.2 Section 3 defines terminology used in this guide.1.15.3 Section 4 includes a summary of this guide.1.15.4 Section 5 provides the significance and use of this guide.1.15.5 Section 6 presents the components of the LCSM.1.15.6 Section 7 offers step-by-step procedures.1.15.7 Nonmandatory appendices are supplied for the following additional information:1.15.7.1 Appendix X1 provides additional LNAPL reading.1.15.7.2 Appendix X2 provides an overview of multiphase modeling.1.15.7.3 Appendix X3 provides example screening level calculations pertaining to the LCSM.1.15.7.4 Appendix X4 provides information about data collection techniques.1.15.7.5 Appendix X5 provides example remediation metrics.1.15.7.6 Appendix X6 provides two simplified examples of the use of the LNAPL guide.1.15.7.7 Appendix X7 and Appendix X8 are glossaries of technical terminology relevant for LNAPL decision-making.1.15.8 A reference list is included at the end of the document.1.16 The appendices are provided for additional information and are not included as mandatory sections of this guide.1.17 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.1.18 This guide offers an organized collection of information or a series of options and does not recommend a specific course of action. This document cannot replace education or experience and should be used in conjunction with professional judgment. Not all aspects of this guide may be applicable in all circumstances. This ASTM standard is not intended to represent or replace the standard of care by which the adequacy of a given professional service must be judged, nor should this document be applied without consideration of a project's many unique aspects. The word “Standard” in the title of this document means only that the document has been approved through the ASTM consensus process.1.19 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

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