4.1 These test methods for the chemical analysis of metals and alloys are primarily intended to test such materials for compliance with compositional specifications. It is assumed that all who use these test methods will be trained analysts, capable of performing common laboratory procedures skillfully and safely. It is expected that work will be performed in a properly equipped laboratory.1.1 These test methods cover the determination of carbon, sulfur, nitrogen, and oxygen, in steel, iron, nickel, and cobalt alloys having chemical compositions within the following limits:Element Mass Fraction Range, %Aluminum 0.001 to 18.00Antimony 0.002 to 0.03Arsenic 0.0005 to 0.10Beryllium 0.001 to 0.05Bismuth 0.001 to 0.50Boron 0.0005 to 1.00Cadmium 0.001 to 0.005Calcium 0.001 to 0.05Carbon 0.001 to 4.50Cerium 0.005 to 0.05Chromium 0.005 to 35.00Cobalt 0.01 to 75.0Niobium 0.002 to 6.00Copper 0.005 to 10.00Hydrogen 0.0001 to 0.0030Iron 0.01 to 100.0Lead 0.001 to 0.50Magnesium 0.001 to 0.05Manganese 0.01 to 20.0Molybdenum 0.002 to 30.00Nickel 0.005 to 84.00Nitrogen 0.0005 to 0.50Oxygen 0.0005 to 0.03Phosphorus 0.001 to 0.90Selenium 0.001 to 0.50Silicon 0.001 to 6.00Sulfur 0.002 to 0.35Tantalum 0.001 to 10.00Tellurium 0.001 to 0.35Tin 0.002 to 0.35Titanium 0.002 to 5.00Tungsten 0.005 to 21.00Vanadium 0.005 to 5.50Zinc 0.005 to 0.20Zirconium 0.005 to 2.5001.2 The test methods appear in the following order:  SectionsCarbon, Total, by the Combustion and Infrared Absorption or Thermal Conductivity Detection Test Method 10 – 20   Nitrogen by the Inert Gas Fusion and Thermal Conductivity Detection Test Method 32 – 42   Oxygen by the Inert Gas Fusion and Infrared Absorption or Thermal Conductivity Detection Test Method 43 – 54   Sulfur by the Combustion-Infrared Absorption Detection Test Method 55 – 65   Sulfur by the Combustion–Infrared Absorption Test Method (Potassium Sulfate Calibration) – Discontinued 2018  21 – 311.3 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.1.4 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use. Specific hazards statements are given in Section 6.1.5 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

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4.1 This practice provides general guidelines for the proper practice of gas chromatography coupled with infrared spectrophotometric detection and analysis (GC/IR). This practice assumes that the chromatography involved in the practice is adequate to separate the compounds of interest. It is not the intention of this practice to instruct the user how to perform gas chromatography properly.1.1 This practice covers techniques that are of general use in analyzing qualitatively multicomponent samples by using a combination of gas chromatography (GC) and infrared (IR) spectrophotometric techniques. The mixture is separated into its individual components by GC and then these individual components are analyzed by IR spectroscopy. Types of GC-IR techniques discussed include eluent trapping, flowcell, and eluite deposition.1.2 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.1.3 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.

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5.1 This practice is recommended for use primarily for non-occupational exposure monitoring in domiciles, public access buildings, and offices.5.2 The methods described in this practice have been successfully applied to measurement of pesticides and PCBs in outdoor air and for personal respiratory exposure monitoring.5.3 A broad spectrum of pesticides are commonly used in and around the house and for insect control in public and commercial buildings. Other semivolatile organic chemicals, such as PCBs, are also often present in indoor air, particularly in large office buildings. This practice promotes needed precision and bias in the determination of many of these airborne chemicals.1.1 This practice covers the sampling of air for a variety of common pesticides and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and provides guidance on the selection of appropriate analytical measurement methods. Other compounds such as polychlorinated dibenzodioxins/furans, polybrominated biphenyls, polybrominated diphenyl ethers, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and polychlorinated naphthalenes may be efficiently collected from air by this practice, but guidance on their analytical determination is not covered by this practice.1.2 The sampling and analysis of PCBs in air can be more complicated than sampling PCBs in solid media (for example, soils, building materials) or liquids (for example, transformer fluids). PCBs in solid or liquid material are typically analyzed using Aroclor2 distillation groups in chromatograms. In contrast, recent research has shown that analysis of PCBs in air samples by GC-ECD has also been found to exhibit potential uncertainties due to changes in the PCB patterns, differences in responses in distillation groups, peak co-elutions and differences in response factors within a homolog group (1, 2).3 As such it is recommended that PCBs in air not be quantified using AroclorTM distillation groups. In addition, it is recommended that analysis of PCBs in air be done using GC-MS rather than GC-ECD. Any mention, to outdated practices for “Aroclor” and GC-ECD analysis of PCBs herein are retained solely for historical perspective.1.3 A complete listing of pesticides and other semivolatile organic chemicals for which this practice has been tested is shown in Table 1.1.4 This practice is based on the collection of chemicals from air onto polyurethane foam (PUF) or a combination of PUF and granular sorbent (for example, diphenyl oxide, styrene-divinylbenzene), or a granular sorbent alone.1.5 This practice is applicable to multicomponent atmospheres, 0.001 μg/m3 to 50 μg/m3 concentrations, and 4 h to 24 h sampling periods. The limit of detection will depend on the nature of the analyte and the length of the sampling period.1.6 The analytical method(s) recommended will depend on the specific chemical(s) sought, the concentration level, and the degree of specificity required.1.7 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.1.8 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use. For specific hazards statements, see 10.24 and A1.1.1.9 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

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4.1 This practice covers bearings and bearing components of all material compositions and grades. It may be used to develop a process for adequately handling bearings.4.2 Unless the proper conditions of an adequate facility, equipment, and trained personnel are available, it may be better not to inspect the bearings in-house. The danger of contaminating and damaging the bearings may be much greater than the possibility of receiving bearings that will not function.4.3 Bearings are easily damaged at the customers' receiving and test areas. In most cases, bearings should be accepted based on the bearing manufacturer’s certification. Certificates of quality (conformance) supplied by the bearing manufacturer may be furnished in lieu of actual performance of such testing by the receiving activity of the bearings. The certificate shall include the name of the purchaser, contract number/PO number, name of the manufacturer or supplier, item identification, name of the material, lot number, lot size, sample size, date of testing, test method, individual test results, and the specification requirements.4.4 This practice does not cover clean room requirements of miniature and instrument precision bearings. These bearings require clean room environments in accordance with ISO 14644-1 and ISO 14644-2.1.1 This practice covers requirements for the handling of all bearings and bearing components.1.2 This is a general practice. The individual bearing handling requirements shall be as specified herein or as specified in the contract or purchase order. In the event of any conflict between requirements of this practice and the individual bearing requirements of an OEM drawing, procurement specification, or other specification, the latter shall govern. Many companies, organizations, and bearing users have excellent facilities, equipment, and knowledgeable personnel for handling bearings. The thrust of this practice is for users that do not have this knowledge of bearings.1.3 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.1.4 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

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5.1 Need for Heat Flux Measurements: 5.1.1 Independent measurements of temperature and heat flux support the development and validation of engineering models of fires and other high environments, such as furnaces. For tests of fire protection materials and structural assemblies, temperature and heat flux are necessary to fully specify the boundary conditions, also known as the thermal exposure. Temperature measurements alone cannot provide a complete set of boundary conditions.5.1.2 Temperature is a scalar variable and a primary variable. Heat Flux is a vector quantity, and it is a derived variable. As a result, they should be measured separately just as current and voltage are in electrical systems. For steady-state or quasi-steady state conditions, analysis basically uses a thermal analog of Ohm's Law. The thermal circuit uses the temperature difference instead of voltage drop, the heat flux in place of the current and thermal resistance in place of electrical resistance. As with electrical systems, the thermal performance is not fully specified without knowing at least two of these three parameters (temperature drop, heat flux, or thermal resistance). For dynamic thermal experiments like fires or fire safety tests, the electrical capacitance is replaced by the volumetric heat capacity.5.1.3 The net heat flux, which is measured by a DFT, is likely different than the heat flux into the test item of interest because of different surface temperatures. An alternative measurement is the total cold wall heat flux which is measured by water-cooled Gardon or S-B gauges. The incident radiative flux can be estimated from either measurement by use of an energy balance [Keltner, 2007 and 2008 (16, 17)]. The convective flux can be estimated from gas temperatures and the convective heat transfer coefficient, h [Janssens, 2007 (18)]. Assuming the sensor is physically close to the test item of interest; one can use the incident radiative and convective fluxes from the sensor as boundary conditions into the test item of interest.5.1.4 In standardized fire resistance tests such as Test Methods E119 and E1529, or ISO 834 or IMO A754, the furnace temperature is controlled to a standard time-temperature curve. In all but Test Methods E1529, implicit assumptions have been made that the thermal exposure can be described solely by the measured furnace temperature history and that it will be repeatable from time to time and place to place. However, these tests provide very different thermal exposures due to the use of temperature sensors with very different designs for furnace control. As a result, these different thermal exposure histories produce different fire ratings for the same item. Historical variations of up to 50 % or more in the qualitative fire protection ratings (for example, 1 h) between different furnaces or laboratories indicate that the assumptions for time-temperature control are not well founded. Also, due to different sensors, thermal exposure in a vertical furnace is generally higher than in a horizontal furnace, and thermal exposure on the floor of a horizontal furnace is generally higher than on the ceiling. These reasons provide support for why both temperature and heat flux measurements are needed to provide consistent test results.5.1.5 In the mid-90’s, the U. S. Coast Guard authorized a study of the problems in marine fire resistance tests, such as large variations in the ratings obtained in different furnaces. One important conclusion was that the thermal exposure in furnaces could not be predicted solely from furnace temperature measurements without large static and dynamic uncertainties [Wittasek, N. A., 1996 (19)].5.1.6 One of the recommendations that resulted from NIST’s investigation of the World Trade Center disaster was the need to move towards performance based codes and standards. A report developed for The Fire Protection Research Foundation expanded on this recommendation [Beyler, C., et al., 2008 (20)]. Part of this effort involves making a more comprehensive set of measurements in fire resistance tests including quantitative heat flux measurements. It also involves the development and use of “design fires” and defining their relationship with standardized test methods.5.1.7 Work at Sandia National Laboratories on transportation accidents involving hazardous materials compares the Prescriptive and Performance based approaches [Tieszen, et al., 2010 (21)].5.1.8 Work by the National Research Council of Canada used four (4) different temperature sensors to control a horizontal furnace. Differences in the thermal exposure (see definition in 3.2.5) were as high as 100 % during the first 10 min [Sultan, M., 2006 and 2008 (22, 23)]. Assuming the temperature measurements from the different sensors or different installations of the same sensor are actually the furnace temperature, one can predict very different thermal exposures depending on which temperature measurement method is used.5.1.9 In another series of horizontal furnace tests, the National Research Council of Canada (NRCC) studied the effect of six (6) different temperature sensor designs on fire resistance tests in a large, horizontal furnace [Sultan, 2008 (23)]. NRCC used six different temperature sensors for furnace control: Test Methods E119 Shielded Thermocouple, ISO 834 Plate Thermometer, 6 mm MIMS TC from Test Methods E1529, Directional Flame Thermometers, and 1.6 mm MIMS TCs with grounded and ungrounded junctions. Total heat flux at the ceiling was measured using a Gardon gauge. Results showed that very different thermal exposures are possible depending on the measurement method used. During the first 10 min of a fire resistance test, the integrated heat flux varies by a factor of two.5.1.10 Reports by Sultan, M., (2006 and 2008) (22, 23) and Janssens, M., (2008) (18) have shown it is difficult to measure one parameter in a fire resistance test (such as the furnace temperature) and calculate the other (heat flux or thermal exposure).5.1.11 From the discussions in 5.1, it is highly recommended that both temperature and heat flux be measured independently in fire tests.5.2 Use for DFTs: 5.2.1 Although both cooled and non-cooled sensors can be used to measure heat flux, the results are generally quite different. Water-cooled sensors are the direct reading Schmidt-Boelter or Gardon gauge designs that are used in some Committee E5 Methods (Test Methods E2683 and E511, respectively, have been developed for these sensors by Subcommittee E21.08 ).5.2.2 There are three types of passive or un-cooled sensors that can be used to measure net heat flux. One is the hybrid sensor (so-called High Temperature Heat Flux Sensor, HTHFS) developed by Diller, et al., at Virginia Tech. It is designed to measure heat transfer to a surface without water cooling [Gifford, A., Hubble, D., Pullins, C., and Diller, T., 2010 (4)]. The HTHFS requires a calibration factor that is a function of sensor temperature [Pullins and Diller, 2010 (24)]. Another is the so-called “direct write heat flux sensor” which can be used at temperatures from 25 to 860 °C [Trelewicz, Longtin, Hubble, and Greenlaw, 2015 (25)]; this gauge requires a calibration coefficient. The third is the Directional Flame Thermometer (DFT), which was developed at Sandia National Laboratories (based on work in the UK) and elsewhere for measuring heat transfer in large sooty pool fires. DFTs do not require a calibration factor, which may be viewed as a mixed benefit. The passive sensors typically have higher temperature capability, based mainly on the Type K or N TC limit of about 1250 °C. Even though they are water cooled, quite often Gardon and Schmidt-Boelter gauges do not survive in temperatures due to fouling of the sensing surface, and other effects. DFTs usually survive up to about 1100 °C. They are very rugged, require no cooling, and are not susceptible to fouling of the sensing surface. These characteristics simplify installation in a wide range of fire and other applications. This standard will only address DFTs. See 10.2.2 for a more thorough discussion of heat flux gauge calibrations.5.2.3 Early work on DFTs (and the data analysis techniques for them) focused on acquiring quantitative heat flux data to help define the thermal conditions in large, liquid hydrocarbon pool or spill fires. Large pool fires can reach quasi-steady conditions in times as short as a minute. As a result, Pool Fire DFTs were designed with 1.6 mm thick plates to provide rapid equilibration with the fire (the maximum heating rate in these fires was approximately 30 °C/s).1.1 This test method describes the continuous measurement of the hemispherical heat flux to one or both surfaces of an uncooled sensor called a “Directional Flame Thermometer” (DFT).1.2 DFTs consist of two heavily oxidized, Inconel 600 plates with mineral insulated, metal-sheathed (MIMS) thermocouples (TCs, type K) attached to the unexposed faces and a layer of ceramic fiber insulation placed between the plates.1.3 Post-test calculations of the net heat flux can be made using several methods. The most accurate method uses an inverse heat conduction code. Nonlinear inverse heat conduction analysis uses a thermal model of the DFT with temperature dependent thermal properties along with the two plate temperature measurement histories. The code provides transient heat flux on both exposed faces, temperature histories within the DFT as well as statistical information on the quality of the analysis.1.4 A second method uses a transient energy balance on the DFT sensing surface and insulation, which uses the same temperature measurements as in the inverse calculations to estimate the net heat flux.1.5 A third method uses Inverse Filter Functions (IFFs) to provide a near real time estimate of the net flux. The heat flux history for the “front face” (either surface exposed to the heat source) of a DFT can be calculated in real-time using a convolution type of digital filter algorithm.1.6 Although developed for use in fires and fire safety testing, this measurement method is quite broad in potential fields of application because of the size of the DFTs and their construction. It has been used to measure heat flux levels above 300 kW/m2 in high temperature environments, up to about 1250 °C, which is the generally accepted upper limit of Type K or N thermocouples.1.7 The transient response of the DFTs is limited by the response of the MIMS TCs. The larger the thermocouple the slower the transient response. Response times of approximately 1 to 2 s are typical for 1.6 mm diameter MIMS TCs attached to 1.6 mm thick plates. The response time can be improved by using a differential compensator.1.8 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. The values given in parentheses after SI units are provided for information only and are not considered standard.1.9 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.1.10 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

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This practice establishes the standard techniques that are of general use in securing and analyzing samples in microgram quantities (microanalysis) by infrared spectrophotometry. These techniques include general microspectroscopy, analysis of gas chromatographic fractions, analysis of liquid chromatographic fractions, analysis of thin-layer chromatographic fractions, analysis of paper chromatographic fractions, analysis of gases evolved from a thermogravimetric analyzer, and infrared spectroscopy using a microscope.1.1 This practice covers techniques that are of general use in securing and analyzing microgram quantities of samples by infrared spectrophotometric techniques. This practice makes repetition of description of specific techniques unnecessary in individual infrared methods.1.2 These recommendations are supplementary to Practices E168, E573, and E1252, which should be referred to for theory, general techniques of sample preparation, and calculations.1.3 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.1.4 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

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4.1 An aquifer test method is a controlled field experiment made to determine the approximate hydraulic properties of water-bearing material. The hydraulic properties that can be determined are specific to the test method. The hydraulic properties that can be determined are also dependent upon the instrumentation of the field test, the knowledge of the aquifer system at the field site, and conformance of the hydrogeologic conditions at the field site to the assumptions of the test method. Hydraulic conductivity and storage coefficient of the aquifer are the basic properties determined by most test methods. Test methods can be designed also to determine vertical and horizontal anisotropy, aquifer discontinuities, vertical hydraulic conductivity of confining beds, well efficiency, turbulent flow, and specific storage and vertical permeability of confining beds.1.1 This guide covers an integral part of a series of standards that are being prepared on the in situ determination of hydraulic properties of aquifer systems by single- or multiple-well tests. This guide provides guidance for development of a conceptual model of a field site and selection of an analytical test method for determination of hydraulic properties. This guide does not establish a fixed procedure for determination of hydrologic properties.1.2 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.1.3 Limitations—Well techniques have limitations in the determination of hydraulic properties of groundwater flow systems. These limitations are related primarily to the simplifying assumptions that are implicit in each test method. The response of an aquifer system to stress is not unique; therefore, the system must be known sufficiently to select the proper analytical method.1.4 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.1.5 This guide offers an organized collection of information or a series of options and does not recommend a specific course of action. This document cannot replace education or experience and should be used in conjunction with professional judgment. Not all aspects of this guide may be applicable in all circumstances. This ASTM standard is not intended to represent or replace the standard of care by which the adequacy of a given professional service must be judged, nor should this document be applied without consideration of a project's many unique aspects. The word “Standard” in the title of this document means only that the document has been approved through the ASTM consensus process.

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5.1 For users or manufacturers of thermocouples, this test method provides a means of verifying the emf-temperature characteristics of the material prior to use.5.2 This test method can be used to calibrate a thermocouple for use as a reference, or it can be used to calibrate thermocouples representing a batch of purchased, assembled thermocouples.5.3 This test method can be used for the verification of the conformance of thermocouple materials to temperature tolerances for specifications such as the tables in Specification E230 or other special specifications as required for commercial, military, or research applications.1.1 This test method describes the principles, apparatus, and procedure for calibrating thermocouples by comparison with a reference thermometer. Calibrations are covered over temperature ranges appropriate to the individual types of thermocouples within an overall range from approximately −195 °C to 1700 °C (−320 °F to 3100 °F).1.2 In general, this test method is applicable to unused thermocouples. This test method does not apply to used thermocouples due to their potential material inhomogeneity—the effects of which cannot be identified or quantified by standard calibration techniques. Thermocouples with large-diameter thermoelements and sheathed thermocouples may require special care to control thermal conduction losses.1.3 In this test method, all values of temperature are based on the International Temperature Scale of 1990. See Guide E1594.1.4 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.1.5 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

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4.1 This guide establishes the minimum national standard for training the Emergency Medical Technician to perform patient examination techniques on patients of all ages.4.2 This guide shall be used by those who wish to identify the minimum training standard for the Emergency Medical Technician as it relates to the performance of patient examination techniques.4.3 This guide shall be used as the basis to revise Practice F1031.4.4 Every person who is identified as an Emergency Medical Technician shall have been trained in accordance with this guide.4.5 This guide does not stand alone and must be used in conjunction with the applicable documents cited in Section 2.1.1 This guide covers the minimum patient examination techniques that the Emergency Medical Technician shall be trained to use when assessing ill or injured patients of all ages.1.2 This guide is one of a series which together describe the minimum training standard for the Emergency Medical Technician.1.3 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.1.4 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

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5.1 Investments in long-lived projects such as buildings are characterized by uncertainties regarding project life, operation and maintenance costs, revenues, and other factors that affect project economics. Since future values of these variable factors are generally not known, it is difficult to make reliable economic evaluations.5.2 The traditional approach to project investment analysis has been to apply economic methods of project evaluation to best-guess estimates of project input variables as if they were certain estimates and then to present results in single-value, deterministic terms. When projects are evaluated without regard to uncertainty of inputs to the analysis, decision-makers may have insufficient information to measure and evaluate the risk of investing in a project having a different outcome from what is expected.5.3 Risk analysis is the body of theory and practice that has evolved to help decision-makers assess their risk exposures and risk attitudes so that the investment that is the best bet for them can be selected.NOTE 1: The decision-maker is the individual or group of individuals responsible for the investment decision. For example, the decision-maker may be the chief executive officer or the board of directors.5.4 Uncertainty and risk are defined as follows. Uncertainty (or certainty) refers to a state of knowledge about the variable inputs to an economic analysis. If the decision-maker is unsure of input values, there is uncertainty. If the decision-maker is sure, there is certainty. Risk refers either to risk exposure or risk attitude.5.4.1 Risk exposure is the probability of investing in a project that will have a less favorable economic outcome than what is desired (the target) or is expected.5.4.2 Risk attitude, also called risk preference, is the willingness of a decision-maker to take a chance or gamble on an investment of uncertain outcome. The implications of decision-makers having different risk attitudes is that a given investment of known risk exposure might be economically acceptable to an investor who is not particularly risk averse, but totally unacceptable to another investor who is very risk averse.NOTE 2: For completeness, this guide covers both risk averse and risk taking attitudes. Most investors, however, are likely to be risk averse. The principles described herein apply both to the typical case where investors have different degrees of risk aversion and to the atypical case where some investors are risk taking while others are risk averse.5.5 No single technique can be labeled the best technique in every situation for treating uncertainty, risk, or both. What is best depends on the following: availability of data, availability of resources (time, money, expertise), computational aids (for example, computer services), user understanding, ability to measure risk exposure and risk attitude, risk attitude of decision-makers, level of risk exposure of the project, and size of the investment relative to the institution’s portfolio.1.1 This guide covers techniques for treating uncertainty in input values to an economic analysis of a building investment project. It also recommends techniques for evaluating the risk that a project will have a less favorable economic outcome than what is desired or expected.21.2 The techniques include breakeven analysis, sensitivity analysis, risk-adjusted discounting, the mean-variance criterion and coefficient of variation, decision analysis, simulation, and stochastic dominance.1.3 The techniques can be used with economic methods that measure economic performance, such as life-cycle cost analysis, net benefits, the benefit-to-cost ratio, internal rate of return, and payback.1.4 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

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4.1 These practices are intended for all infrared spectroscopists. For novices, these practices will serve as an overview of preparation, operation, and calculation techniques. For experienced persons, these practices will serve as a review when seldom-used techniques are needed.1.1 These practices cover the techniques most often used in infrared quantitative analysis. Practices associated with the collection and analysis of data on a computer are included as well as practices that do not use a computer.1.2 This practice does not purport to address all of the concerns associated with developing a new quantitative method. It is the responsibility of the developer to ensure that the results of the method fall in the desired range of precision and bias.1.3 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.1.4 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use. Specific hazard statements appear in Section 6, Note A4.7, Note A4.11, and Note A5.6.1.5 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

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5.1 Background subtraction techniques in AES were originally employed as a method of enhancement of the relatively weak Auger signals to distinguish them from the slowly varying background of secondary and backscattered electrons. Interest in obtaining useful information from the Auger peak line shape, concern for greater quantitative accuracy from Auger spectra, and improvements in data gathering techniques, have led to the development of various background subtraction techniques.5.2 Similarly, the use of background subtraction techniques in XPS has evolved mainly from the interest in the determination of chemical states (from the binding-energy values for component peaks that may often overlap), greater quantitative accuracy from the XPS spectra, and improvements in data acquisition. Post-acquisition background subtraction is normally applied to XPS data.5.3 The procedures outlined in Section 7 are popular in XPS and AES; less popular procedures and rarely used procedures are described in Sections 8 and 9, respectively. General reviews of background subtraction methods and curve-fitting techniques have been published elsewhere (1-5).65.4 Background subtraction is commonly performed prior to peak fitting, although it can be assessed (fitted) during peak fitting (active approach (6, 7)). Some commercial data analysis packages require background removal before peak fitting. Nevertheless, a measured spectral region consisting of one or more peaks and background intensities due to inelastic scattering, Bremsstrahlung (for XPS with unmonochromated X-ray sources), and scattered primary electrons (for AES) can often be satisfactorily represented by applying peak functions for each component with parameters for each one determined in a single least-squares fit. The choice of the background to be removed, if required or desired, before or during peak fitting is suggested by the experience of the analysts, the capabilities of the peak fitting software, and the peak complexity as noted above.1.1 The purpose of this guide is to familiarize the analyst with the principal background subtraction techniques presently in use together with the nature of their application to data acquisition and manipulation.1.2 This guide is intended to apply to background subtraction in electron, X-ray, and ion-excited Auger electron spectroscopy (AES), and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS).1.3 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.1.4 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.

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5.1 EMAT techniques show benefits and advantages over conventional piezoelectric ultrasonic techniques in special applications where flexibility in the type of wave mode generation and where no fluid coupling is desired. EMATs are highly efficient in the generation of surface waves.5.2 Since EMATs are highly efficient in the generation of surface waves, and since acoustic techniques utilizing surface waves are proven effective for detecting surface and near-surface discontinuities, they should be considered for any applications where conventional penetrant testing and magnetic particle NDT techniques are effective but undesirable.5.3 Since EMAT techniques are non-contacting, they should be considered for ultrasonic testing where applications involve automation, high-speed examinations, moving objects, applications in remote or hazardous locations, applications to objects at elevated temperatures, or objects with rough surfaces.5.4 The purpose of this practice is to promote the EMAT technique of the ultrasonic method as a viable alternative to conventional PT and MPT methods for detecting the presence of surface and near-surface material discontinuities.5.5 The use of EMATs and the selection of appropriate operating parameters presuppose a knowledge of the geometry of the component; the probable location, size, orientation, and reflectivity of the expected flaws; the allowable range of EMAT lift-off; and the laws of physics governing the propagation of ultrasonic waves. This procedure pertains to a specific EMAT surface inspection application.1.1 This practice covers guidelines for utilizing EMAT techniques for detecting material discontinuities that are primarily open to the surface (for example, cracks, seams, laps, cold shuts, laminations, through leaks, lack of fusion). This technique can also be sensitive to flaws and discontinuities that are not surface-breaking, provided their proximity to the surface is less than or equal to the Rayleigh wave length.1.2 This practice covers procedures for the non-contact coupling of surface waves into a material via electromagnetic fields.1.3 The procedures of this practice are applicable to any material in which acoustic waves can be introduced electromagnetically. This includes any material that is either electrically conductive or ferromagnetic, or both.1.4 This practice is intended to provide examination capabilities for in-process, final, and maintenance applications.1.5 This practice does not provide standards for the evaluation of derived indications. Interpretation, classification, and ultimate evaluation of indications, albeit necessary, are beyond the scope of this practice. Separate specifications or agreement will be necessary to define the type, size, location, and direction of indications considered acceptable or non-acceptable.1.6 Units—The values stated in inch-pound units are to be regarded as standard. The values given in parentheses are mathematical conversions to SI units that are provided for information only and are not considered standard.1.7 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.1.8 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

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5.1 The objective of this guide is to provide the user with an information base on commercially available instruments and technologies that can be used to measure indoor air formaldehyde concentrations.5.2 This guide is intended as a repository for formaldehyde measurement technologies that other approved ASTM methods can reference to meet ASTM indoor air formaldehyde quantification needs.5.3 This guide does not discuss the equivalency of the technologies presented. Each technology may have positive or negative interferences that are unique to that technology. When using a new method, equivalence with old methods should be demonstrated for each matrix, measuring environment and media (that is, each type of wood for formaldehyde emission testing in chamber environments). This is especially true when the method is intended to generate regulatory compliance data. Demonstrating equivalence or compliance, or both, is beyond the scope of this method. For guidance equivalence see references such as 40 CFR § 136.6 and CEN Guide to the Demonstration of Equivalence of Ambient Air Monitoring Methods (1).51.1 This guide describes analytical methods for determining formaldehyde concentrations in air.1.2 The guide is primarily focused on formaldehyde measurement technologies applicable to indoor (including in vehicle and workplace) air and associated environments (that is, chambers or bags, or both, used for formaldehyde emission testing). The described technologies may be applicable to other environments (ambient outdoor).1.3 This guide reviews a range of commercially available technologies that can be used to measure indoor air formaldehyde concentrations. These technologies typically can measure airborne formaldehyde concentrations with detection limits in the range of 0.04 ppbv (0.05 µg m-3) to 10 ppbv (12 µg m-3). The described technologies are typically applied to research or regulatory applications and not consumer level uses.1.4 This guide describes the principles behind each method and their advantages and limitations.1.5 This guide does not attempt to differentiate between the effectiveness of the methods nor determine equivalence of the methods.1.6 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.1.7 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.1.8 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

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4.1 These practices are a source of general information on the techniques of ultraviolet and visible quantitative analyses. They provide the user with background information that should help ensure the reliability of spectrophotometric measurements.4.2 These practices are not intended as a substitute for a thorough understanding of any particular analytical method. It is the responsibility of the users to familiarize themselves with the critical details of a method and the proper operation of the available instrumentation.1.1 These practices are intended to provide general information on the techniques most often used in ultraviolet and visible quantitative analysis. The purpose is to render unnecessary the repetition of these descriptions of techniques in individual methods for quantitative analysis.1.2 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.1.3 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.1.4 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

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