1.1 This guide covers the determination of the amount of an oily soil removed from a metal surface.

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5.1 To be meaningful, walkway tribometer results must correlate the slip characteristics of a surface or contaminant, or both, to the actual propensity for human slips. To achieve this goal, walkway tribometer models must be validated against a standard with relevance to human ambulation.5.2 This practice prescribes a series of reference surfaces with known relative slip potential ranging from very high to low (as defined by laboratory conditions only) upon which walkway tribometer models can be validated. The relative slip potential of each reference surface was established from human subject walking trials.35.3 The following should be considered in applying the validation and calibration obtained by this practice:5.3.1 The scientific study upon which the validation process is based was conducted with a select population of young adults (mean age 26 years) who were free from gait deviations while walking in a straight path on a level surface with a mean walking velocity of 2.18 m/s. This walking velocity is faster than the average walking velocity for the general population which includes a much wider age range with greater variability; thus, the study sample population of pedestrians and conditions is not representative of the larger general population of pedestrians.5.3.2 All subjects walked in Oxford-style shoes whose soles were constructed of smooth styrene butadiene rubber (SBR) with 75A Shore hardness. The shoe style and sole material is not representative of all combinations available in the marketplace.5.3.3 The reference surfaces defined in this practice are not representative of all walkway surfaces. The outcome of the validation practice reflects performance on the type of reference surfaces and surface conditions defined in this practice only. Validation and calibration of a walkway tribometer as defined by this practice does not imply validation and calibration under all combinations of test foot materials and walkway surfaces.5.3.4 The validation and calibration procedure defined by this practice is not intended to establish a “safe threshold” value for any walkway surface.1.1 This practice is intended to establish the procedures for validation, calibration, and certification of walkway tribometers.1.2 This practice provides a walkway tribometer supplier with a procedure and suite of reference surfaces to validate his walkway tribometer by properly ranking and differentiating the surfaces.1.3 This practice provides the user of a walkway tribometer with a procedure and suite of reference surfaces to test calibration of his instrument.1.4 This practice provides a procedure through which an entity may certify a walkway tribometer model, signifying that the walkway tribometer model has a completed and documented validation and interlaboratory study.1.5 This practice describes the necessary materials, specifications, and the cleaning process for reference materials, as well as the requirements for the validation of a supplier’s walkway tribometer and calibration of a user’s walkway tribometer.1.6 This practice applies to walkway tribometers without reference to the nature of the scale of the readings produced by them. The scale used in the reports of validation and calibration must be the same, and are to be those of the instrument or defined for the instrument.1.7 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. The values given in parentheses are for information only and are not considered standard.1.8 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.1.9 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

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4.1 A waterproofing membrane should maintain its watertight integrity for the life of the building in a continuously or intermittently moist environment and may be subject to continuous or intermittent hydrostatic pressure. It should resist chemicals that can harm the membrane and root growth. This guide lists minimum performance attributes required of waterproofing membranes applied to below-grade walls. Products not previously used as waterproofing membrane materials require additional tests beyond the scope of this guide. This guide is not intended for use on in-service waterproofing materials. Waterproofing membranes and other components should conform to ASTM product standards, if available.4.2 Limitations—Prior to use and in service, waterproofing may be exposed to a variety of conditions so no one test will provide evaluations related to performance for all exposures. Neither will all tests be necessary in all evaluations for specific exposures.1.1 This guide lists test methods intended to establish a minimum level of acceptable performance attributes for reinforced or laminated waterproofing membranes applied to below-grade walls.1.2 This guide does not include cementitious, integral, or bentonite waterproofing systems.1.3 This guide does not include membranes applied under slabs on grade or on suspended slabs below grade or applied to soil retaining systems, water containment structures, or tunnels.1.4 It is not possible to establish a precise correlation between laboratory tests on waterproofing membranes and performance attributes after installation due to variations in chemicals in the soil, design, material, and installation.1.5 The values stated in either inch-pound or SI units are to be regarded separately as standard. The values stated in each system may not be exact equivalents; therefore, each system shall be used independently of the other. Combining values from the two systems may result in nonconformance with the standard.1.6 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.1.7 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

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4.1 This test method specifies test procedures that can easily be used for field testing of equine surfaces. It is a test method that can be consistently applied to any equine surface and can quantitatively measure functional properties and track surface performance changes over time.1.1 This test method covers the specification for the measurement of the functional properties of equine surfaces; cushioning, impact, firmness, responsiveness and uniformity. This test method specifies test procedures that are appropriate for field testing of equine surfaces. This test method defines the functional properties of equine surfaces. This test method does not specify safety criteria. The extent to which functional properties contribute to individual injury risk is not known.1.2 Where appropriate values are stated in SI units.1.3 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.1.4 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

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5.1 This wipe sampling and indirect analysis test method is used for the general testing of surfaces for asbestos. It is used to assist in the evaluation of surfaces in buildings, such as ceiling tiles, shelving, electrical components, duct work, and so forth. This test method provides an index of the concentration of asbestos structures per unit area sampled as derived from a quantitative measure of the number of asbestos structures detected during analysis.5.1.1 This test method does not describe procedures or techniques required for the evaluation of the safety or habitability of buildings with asbestos-containing materials, or compliance with federal, state, or local regulations or statutes. It is the user's responsibility to make these determinations.5.1.2 At present, a single direct relationship between asbestos sampled from a surface and potential human exposure does not exist. Accordingly, the user should consider these data in relationship to other available information (for example, air sampling data) in their evaluation.5.2 One or more large asbestos-containing particles dispersed during sample preparation may result in large asbestos surface loading results in the TEM analyses of that sample. It is, therefore, recommended that multiple replicate independent samples be secured in the same area, and that a minimum of three such samples be analyzed by the entire procedure.1.1 This test method covers a procedure to identify asbestos in samples wiped from surfaces and to provide an estimate of the concentration of asbestos reported as the number of asbestos structures per unit area of sampled surface. The procedure outlined in this test method employs an indirect sample preparation technique. It is intended to disperse aggregated asbestos into fundamental fibrils, fiber bundles, clusters, or matrices. However, as with all indirect sample preparation techniques, the asbestos observed for quantification may not represent the physical form of the asbestos as sampled. More specifically, the procedure described neither creates nor destroys asbestos, but it may alter the physical form of the mineral fiber aggregates.1.2 This test method describes the equipment and procedures necessary for wipe sampling of surfaces for levels of asbestos structures. The sample is collected onto a particle-free wipe material (wipe) from the surface of a sampling area that may contain asbestos.1.2.1 The collection efficiency of this wipe sampling technique is unknown and will vary among substrates. Properties influencing collection efficiency include surface texture, adhesiveness, and other factors.1.2.2 This test method is generally applicable for an estimate of the surface loading of asbestos structures starting from approximately 1000 asbestos structures per square centimetre.1.3 Asbestos identification by transmission electron microscopy (TEM) is based on morphology, electron diffraction (ED), and energy dispersive X-ray analysis (EDXA).1.4 This test method allows determination of the type(s) of asbestos fibers present.1.4.1 This test method cannot always discriminate between individual fibers of the asbestos and nonasbestos analogues of the same amphibole mineral.1.4.2 There is no lower limit to the dimensions of asbestos fibers that can be detected. However, in practice, the lower limit to the dimensions of asbestos fibers, that can be detected, is variable and dependent on individual microscopists. Therefore, a minimum length of 0.5 μm has been defined as the shortest fiber to be incorporated in the reported results.1.5 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard.1.6 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.1.7 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

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5.1 Data obtained from the procedure of this test method are indicative of the relative abrasiveness of fabric or carpet type synthetic playing surfaces.1.1 This test method is applicable to both laboratory and field measurement of synthetic turf surfaces used for sports.1.2 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as the standard. The values given in parentheses are for information only.1.3 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.1.4 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

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4.1 This practice addresses elements along and in walkways including floors and walkway surfaces, sidewalks, short flight stairs, gratings, wheel stops, and speed bumps. Swimming pools, bath tubs, showers, natural walks, and unimproved paths are beyond the scope of this practice.1.1 This practice covers design and construction guidelines and minimum maintenance criteria for new and existing buildings and structures. This practice is intended to provide reasonably safe walking surfaces for pedestrians wearing ordinary footwear. These guidelines may not be adequate for those with certain mobility impairments.1.2 Conformance with this practice will not alleviate all hazards; however, conformance will reduce certain pedestrian risks.1.3 The values stated in inch-pound units are to be regarded as standard. The values given in parentheses are mathematical conversions to SI units that are provided for information only and are not considered standard.1.4 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.1.5 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

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5.1 Wax binders are critical for synthetic equestrian surfaces to stay together at consistencies desired. Surfaces are designed to prevent injuries and the wax binders are critical to ensure that this happens. Soxhlet extraction of wax binder is an efficient method to determine the amount of wax binder present in a synthetic equestrian surface.1.1 Equine surfaces containing wax-oil based coatings/binders must be treated and cleaned prior to the subsequent material tests described for sand and fiber surfaces. Note: skip this test for surfaces that are not wax coated.1.2 The procedures described for wax separation employ Soxhlet extraction to remove wax content from the surface and to calculate crude wax percentage in the surface. Procedures are based upon the Soxhlet extraction method, which has been modified for use on equestrian surfaces by Lab/Cor Materials, Seattle, Washington, USA.21.3 If synthetic fibers are present, then fiber solubility will need to be considered prior to Soxhlet extraction to ensure that the Soxhlet procedure will not damage fiber integrity.1.4 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.1.5 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

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5.1 Solar reflectance and thermal emittance are important factors affecting surface and near-surface ambient air temperature. Surfaces with low solar reflectance, absorb a high fraction of the incoming solar energy. A fraction of this absorbed energy is conducted into ground and buildings, a fraction is convected to air (leading to higher air temperatures), and a fraction is radiated to the sky. For equivalent conditions, the lower the emissivity of a surface the higher its steady-state temperature. Surfaces with low emissivity cannot effectively radiate to the sky and, therefore, get hot. Determination of solar reflectance and thermal emittance, and subsequent calculation of the relative temperature of the surfaces with respect to black and white reference temperature (defined as Solar Reflectance Index, SRI), may help designers and consumers to choose the proper materials to make their buildings and communities energy efficient. The method described here gives the SRI of surfaces based on measured solar reflectances and thermal emissivities of the surfaces.1.1 This practice covers the calculation of the Solar Reflectance Index (SRI) of horizontal and low-sloped opaque surfaces at standard conditions. The method is intended to calculate SRI for surfaces with emissivity greater than 0.1.1.2 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.1.3 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.1.4 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

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4.1 Rutted pavement surfaces may have an adverse influence on vehicle handling characteristics and may impede surface drainage, which may reduce friction properties and contribute to hydroplaning. Rutting indicates deformation or wear of materials in the pavement and may be indicative of problems such as asphalt flow, consolidation, shear, or loss of pavement materials.4.2 The rut-depth value obtained using this test method may not correlate well with values obtained using other methods.1.1 This test method describes the procedure for the measurement of the depth of the rut at a chosen location in a pavement surface using a straightedge and a gauge.1.2 The values stated in either SI units or inch-pound units are to be regarded separately as standard. Within the text, the inch-pound units are shown in brackets. The values stated in each system are not exact equivalents; therefore, each system must be used independently of the other. Combining values from the two systems may result in nonconformance with the specification.1.3 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.1.4 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

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This practice covers a cleaning and de-scaling procedure useful to producers, users, and fabricators of zirconium and zirconium alloys for the removal of ordinary shop soils, oxides, and scales resulting from heat treatment operations and foreign substances present as surface contaminants. Grease, oil, and lubricants employed in machining, forming, and fabricating operations on zirconium and zirconium alloys should be removed by employing one of the methods or a combination of methods: alkaline or emulsion soak-type cleaners, ultrasonic cleaning, acetone, citrus based cleaners, or safety solvent immersion washing or vapor degreasing, or electrolytic alkaline cleaning system. Mechanical de-scaling methods such as sandblasting, shot blasting, and vapor blasting may be used to remove hot work scales and lubricants from zirconium surfaces if followed by thorough conditioning and cleaning. Aluminum oxide, silicon carbide, silica sand, zircon sand, and steel grit are acceptable media for mechanical de-scaling. Recommended post treatment of shot or abrasive blasted zirconium surfaces may include acid pickling to ensure complete removal of metallic iron, oxide, scale, and other surface contaminants. Visual inspection of material cleaned in accordance with this practice should show no evidence of paint, oil, grease, glass, graphite, lubricant, scale, abrasive, iron, or other forms of contamination.1.1 This practice covers a cleaning and descaling procedure useful to producers, users, and fabricators of zirconium and zirconium alloys for the removal of ordinary shop soils, oxides, and scales resulting from heat treatment operations and foreign substances present as surface contaminants.1.2 It is not intended that these procedures become mandatory for removal of any of the indicated soils but rather serve as a guide when zirconium and zirconium alloys are being processed in the wrought, cast, or fabricated form.1.3 It is the intent that these soils be removed prior to chemical milling, joining, plating, welding, fabrication, and in any situation where foreign substances interfere with the corrosion resistance, stability, and quality of the finished product.1.4 Unless a single unit is used, for example, solution concentrations in g/l, the values stated in either inch-pound or SI units are to be regarded separately as standard. The values stated in each system are not exact equivalents; therefore, each system must be used independently of the other. SI values cannot be mixed with inch-pound values.1.5 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use. For specific hazard statements, see Sections 3 and 7.1.6 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

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AbstractThese test methods cover determination of the total normal emittance of surfaces by means of portable, inspection-meter instruments. At least two different types of instruments are commercially available for performing this measurement. Test Method A uses an instrument which measures radiant energy reflected from the specimen and Test Method B utilizes an instrument which measures radiant energy emitted from the specimen. Both test methods are limited in accuracy by the degree to which the emittance properties of calibrating standards are known and by the angular emittance characteristics of the surfaces being measure. Test Method A is normally subject to a small error caused by the difference in wavelength distributions between the radiant energy emitted by the two cavities at different temperatures, and that emitted by a blackbody at the specimen temperature. Test Method B also has nongray errors since the detector is not at absolute zero temperature. Test Method A is subject to small errors that may be introduced if the orientation of the sensing component is changed between calibration and specimen measurements. This type of error results from minor changes in alignment of the optical system. Test Method A is subject to error when curved specular surfaces of less than about a certain radius are measured. These errors can be minimized by using calibrating standards that have the same radius of curvature as the test surface. Test Method A can measure reflectance on specimens that are either opaque or semi-transparent in the wavelength region of interest. However, if emittance is to be derived from the reflectance data on a semi-transparent specimen, a correction must be made for transmittance losses. Test Method B is subject to several possible significant errors. These may be due to variation of the test surface temperature during measurements, differences in temperature between the calibrating standards and the test surfaces, changes in orientation of the sensing component between calibration and measurement, errors due to irradiation of the specimen with thermal radiation by the sensing component, and errors due to specimen curvature. Test Method B is limited to emittance measurements on specimens that are opaque to infrared radiation in the wavelength region of interest. 1.1 These test methods cover determination of the total normal emittance (Note 1) of surfaces by means of portable, as well as desktop, inspection-meter instruments. Note 1: Total normal emittance (εN) is defined as the ratio of the normal radiance of a specimen to that of a blackbody radiator at the same temperature. The equation relating εN to wavelength and spectral normal emittance [εN(λ)] is where: L b(λ, T)   =   Planck's blackbody radiation function = c1λ−5(ec2/λT − 1)−1, c1   =   3.7415 × 10−16W·m 2, c2   =   1.4388 × 10−2 m·K, T   =   absolute temperature, K, λ   =   wavelength, m,   =   σT4, and σ   =   Stefan-Boltzmann constant = 5.66961 × 10 −8 W·m−2·K−4 1.2 These test methods are intended for measurements on large surfaces, or small samples, or both, when rapid measurements must be made and where a nondestructive test is desired. They are particularly useful for production control tests. 1.3 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use. 1.4 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

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4.1 This test method shall be used to determine if a chemical intended for use as a non-food contact sanitizer or as a one-step cleaner-sanitizer provides percent reductions of the selected test organisms on treated carriers as compared to control.1.1 This test method is used to evaluate the antimicrobial efficacy of sanitizers on precleaned, inanimate, hard, nonporous, non-food contact surfaces against Staphylococcus aureus, or Klebsiella pneumoniae or Klebsiella aerogenes, or a combination thereof. Appropriate modifications to the method may be required when testing organisms not specified herein. When utilizing test surfaces not described herein (see Test Method E2274) or when evaluating spray-based or towelette-based antimicrobial products, modifications may also be required.1.2 This test method may also be used to evaluate the antimicrobial efficacy of one-step cleaner-sanitizer formulations recommended for use on lightly soiled, inanimate, nonporous, non-food contact surfaces.1.3 It is the responsibility of the investigator to determine whether Good Laboratory Practices (GLP) are required and to follow them where appropriate (see section 40 CFR, 160 or as revised.)1.4 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. No other units of measurement are included in this standard.1.5 This standard may involve hazardous materials, chemicals and microorganisms and should be performed only by persons who have had formal microbiological training. This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.1.6 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

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3.1 This test method may be used to measure the effectiveness of water resistant treatments of light leathers such as glove and garment leather that have no finish. It can also be used to measure the water absorption capacity of insole materials thus providing a gauge for predicting foot comfort or discomfort.1.1 This test method covers determining the degree of wettability of a leather surface. This test method does not apply to wet blue.1.2 The values stated in inch-pound units are to be regarded as standard. The values given in parentheses are mathematical conversions to SI units that are provided for information only and are not considered standard.1.3 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use.1.4 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

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5.1 In form-fill operations, sealed areas of packages are frequently subject to disruptive forces while still hot. If the hot seals have inadequate resistance to these forces, breakage can occur during the packaging process. These test methods measure hot seal strength and can be used to characterize and rank materials in their ability to perform in commercial applications where this quality is critical.1.1 These two test methods cover laboratory measurement of the strength of heatseals formed between thermoplastic surfaces of flexible webs, immediately after a seal has been made and before it cools to ambient temperature (hot tack strength).1.2 These test methods are restricted to instrumented hot tack testing, requiring a testing machine that automatically heatseals a specimen and immediately determines strength of the hot seal at a precisely measured time after conclusion of the sealing cycle. An additional prerequisite is that the operator shall have no influence on the test after the sealing sequence has begun. These test methods do not cover non-instrumented manual procedures employing springs, levers, pulleys and weights, where test results can be influenced by operator technique.1.3 Two variations of the instrumented hot tack test are described in these test methods, differing primarily in two respects: (a) rate of grip separation during testing of the sealed specimen, and (b) whether the testing machine generates the cooling curve of the material under test, or instead makes a measurement of the maximum force observed following a set delay time. Both test methods may be used to test all materials within the scope of these test methods and within the range and capacity of the machine employed. They are described in Section 4.1.4 SI units are preferred and shall be used in referee decisions. Values stated herein in inch-pound units are to be regarded separately and may not be exact equivalents to SI units. Therefore, each system shall be used independently of the other. Combining values from the two systems may result in non-conformance with the standard.1.5 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety, health, and environmental practices and determine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use. The operator of the equipment is to be aware of pinch points as the seal jaws come together to make a seal, hot surfaces of the jaws, and sharp instruments used to cut specimens. It is recommended that the operator review safety precautions from the equipment supplier.1.6 This international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for the Development of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.

定价： 590元 / 折扣价： 502 元 加购物车